Introduction to Punjab History

The important role of microorganisms in natural environments was recognized by leading microbiologists in the late nineteenth century, in particular M. Beijerinck and S. Winogradsky. In his insightful lecture on the role of microbes in general circulation of life (1897) 1), Winogradsky stressed the cardinal role of microorganisms in the circulation of elements on the earth. Discussing the diversity of microorganisms in an environment and microbe-microbe interactions among the populations, he pointed out the specialized functions of various microorganisms in the processes of matter circulation, and the succession of different functional groups in the community in which they work. However, at the era of Winogradsky and Beiuerinck, the only means of discriminating and identifying microorganisms in-situ was the microscopic observation, and the quantitative analysis of the role played by each microorganism in the community was, in most cases, not attained.

In the 20th century, particularly after the Second World War, we have seen extensive developments in the method of isolation, counting and differentiation of microorganisms in environments. The new methodology in taxonomy, like the numerical taxonomy and chemotaxonomy, was soon applied for the identification of environmental isolates. Also, differential staining methods and fluorescent antibody techniques were introduced for in-situ observation of microorganisms. Various new techniques, ranging from the determination of growth and activity of microorganisms in the environments to their isolation and characterization, were assembled in Modern Methods in the Study of Microbial Ecology edited by Thomas Rosswall in 1973). The book was based on the meeting held at the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, in 1972, and the symposium, preceded the formal ISME, is now known as ISME-0 since R. Guerrero presented at the ISME-63).

The new methods and techniques were proved to be successful for the analysis of microbial community in various fields, soil and water microbiology, food preservation and fermentation, and medical microbiology. The microbiologists working in different fields quickly became aware of the unified concept, microbial ecology. The work of T. Brock "Principles of Microbial Ecology" in 1964) gave a profound impact to the further development of microbial ecology in various countries.

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Sebecosuchia was first constructed in 1946 by American paleontologist Edwin Colbert to include Sebecus and Baurusuchidae. Sebecus, which had been known from South America since 1937, was an unusual crocodyliform with a deep snout and teeth that were ziphodont, or serrated and laterally compressed. The family Baurusuchidae was named the year before and included the newly described Baurusuchus, which was also a South American deep-snouted form.

More recently, other crocodyliforms have been assigned to Sebecosuchia that cannot be placed into either family. These include the genera Eremosuchus, named in 1989, and Pehuenchesuchus, named in 2005. They are usually considered to be more basal sebecosuchians than the sebecids and baurusuchids.

Below is a cladogram showing the possible phylogenetic position of Sebecosuchia modified from Turner and Calvo (2005). In this cladogram, Sebecidae is a paraphyletic assemblage of basal sebecosuchians while Baurusuchidae is monophyletic and includes the more derived sebecosuchians.

In a phylogenetic study of crocodyliforms, Benton and Clark (1988) split up Sebecosuchia, finding baurusuchids to be basal notosuchians while sebecids were basal neosuchians. Since that time, most studies have supported a monophyletic Sebecosuchia. In 2007, however, a phylogenetic study placed baurusuchids as basal metasuchians and sebecids as close relatives to a family of notosuchians called the Peirosauridae. Together, sebecids and peirosaurids made the new clade Sebecia. Below is a cladogram from that study, Larsson and Sues (2007):

Two years later, Sereno and Larsson (2009) came to the same conclusion, except they placed baurusuchids as advanced notosuchians. More recently however, Turner and Sertich (2010) found support for Sebecosuchia in their analysis of notosuchian relationships. In their study, Sebecosuchia was a derived clade within Notosuchia. Iori and Carvalho (2011) came to similar conclusions, grouping Baurusuchus alongside Sebecidae. Below is the cladogram from Turner and Sertich (2010):

Diego Pol and Jaime E. Powell (2011) came to the same conclusion, however their analysis couldn't find a monophyletic Baurusuchidae within Sebecosuchia. The following cladogram simplified after their analysis, with focus on Sebecosuchia.

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The start of the Sri Lankan civil war saw attacks by the LTTE on "border villages" (villages bordering the edges of the frontlines), causing considerable civilian casualties. Villagers began organizing themselves into Home Guards, wherein local volunteers were initially armed with shotguns by the government, to help defend low priority rural areas that could not be held or protected by the armed forces without compromising the frontlines. The National Home Guard Service was thus established in 1986 by then Minister of National Security Lalith Athulathmudali with a strength of about 5000 personnel, armed with 12 gauge shotguns and brown uniforms. No allowances were paid initially, but some rations were issued through co-operative outlets. Subsequent to the takeover by the Police, the volunteers were paid a daily allowance, and provided training at Kumbuka camp, Horana.

In 1988 guardswomen were allowed to volunteer, and 1993 saw the first issue of automatic rifles to the Home Guard. In April 2006 the Home Guard was renamed the Civil Defence Force, followed by the establishment of the Department of Civil Security on 1 January 2007 (through gazette notification No. 1462/20 of 13 September 2006) to oversee it. Numbers employed increased to 41,500 and a month-long military training regime was introduced. Further, two types of uniforms (similar to military uniforms) were issued to guardsmen. Since then, members of the force have been deployed outside their home villages to maintain public security, including within the capital Colombo.

Functions of the Civil Security Department were established to be:

Taking actions as a supplementary force for aiding and assisting the armed forces and police service, depending on the prevailing security status in the country,

Taking action to safeguard villages, properties and cities where terrorist threats are present,

Assisting the police and armed forces to maintain law and order,

Engaging in security duties on instances of national events and any other important occasions,

Assisting with disaster mitigation and relief efforts,

Assisting with social welfare activities,

Carrying out any special duties specified by the President, line ministries or the government, and

Operation of a Civil Security Department Headquarters.In the post-war period, CSD personnel are involved in community service projects, including agriculture, social welfare development, animal husbandry, and construction projects.

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Kashmir's native Hindu Pandits dominated the revenue department which collected taxes from Muslim cultivators. Due to their dominance in the revenue department, the Pandit community came to hold large landholdings. Despite being a small percentage of the Valley's population, the Pandit community possessed 30 percent of land in the Valley. Their authority increased under Maharajah Ranbir Singh, who introduced the chakdari system in 1862 under which there were very easy conditions to grant allotments of uncultivated land.

Shawl Bauf agitationTo protest against the Dogra authorities' hefty taxation, Kashmiri shawl weavers went on strike and gathered to protest outside the residence of Raj Kak Dhar, who was the Kashmiri Pandit official in charge of the Shawl Department. The Governor, Kripa Ram, elected to forcefully quell the uprising. Under the leadership of Colonel Bijoy Singh, the Dogra troops fired at the weavers who were protesting without arms, and as a result 28 of the protesters were killed and 100 injured. This incident was followed by the migration of 4000 weavers from the Valley to the Punjab.

Developments in the late 19th centuryIn 1877-1879 the Kashmir Valley witnessed a severe famine, with some authorities estimating the death toll as 60 percent of Kashmir Valley's population. The ban on leaving the state was lifted and many Kashmiris subsequently left the Valley and migrated to the Punjab. During the famine, Pandits claimed lands left by Muslim cultivators who had migrated to the Punjab as uncultivated land and took ownership under the chakdari system.

Apprehensive of developments in Afghanistan, the British colonial authorities in 1895 called on the Dogra state to attend to the Muslim population's needs. Colonial authorities had already been thinking in 1884 if the British government had delayed in intervening on behalf of the Muslims.

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The German Center for Art History publishes works by its own researchers and accepts essays and monographies by art historians from around the world. The editorial line, at first oriented toward annual themes and long-term projects, has opened up to other methodological and historiographical perspectives. It now incorporates studies on subjects as varied as artistic exchanges, art collections and collectors, classical architecture, art theory, and the political significance of images.

In addition to its Passages/Passagen, Passerelles, and Monographies series, published by ditions de la Maison des sciences de l'homme (MSH) in France and by the Deutscher Kunstverlag (DKV) in Germany, the DFK Paris recently created the Passages online series, available on Heidelberg Universitys open access publication platform arthistoricum.net ART-Books. The institutes publication program is rounded out by numerous co-editions developed with partner institutions.

Alongside print editions, the DFK Paris now produces digital editions, following an open access policy.

Passages/PassagenInitially publishing conference proceedings and papers of the annual themes at the DFK Paris, the Passages/Passagen series was expanded to include broader areas of research, mostly from PhD and postdoctoral dissertations in art history. In the Passages/Passagen series, equal attention is paid to the writing, critical apparatus, images, and graphic design, resulting in outstanding scholarly works, accessible to a wide readership.

Passages onlineThe DFK Paris fully supports the principle of open access, in order to make the results of its research quickly and easily available to an international readership. In 2017, the two existing publication series, Passages/Passagen and Passerelles, were joined by Passages online, which presents the results of scholarly colloquia and annual themes in digital form. These publications are accessible as Open Access online resources via arthistoricum.net ART-Books. Additionally, some volumes are available as print-on-demand publications.

PasserellesThe Passerelles series is dedicated to essays on art history. Short texts analyze the history of critical reception, artistic tastes, and anthropological aspects of art; provide in-depth studies of historiographical works and debates; and delve into theoretical questions or specific genres chosen by artists. As such, these essays offer new possibilities for exploring different times, places, and disciplines.

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Early stage basaltic andesite lava flows crop out on the northern and southwestern slopes of Nevado de Longav. They originated at a site c. 400 metres (1,300 ft) below the present-day summit and reach thicknesses of 100150 metres (330490 ft). Individual flows are about 15 metres (3 ft 3 in16 ft 5 in) thick. These volcanic rocks are up to one million years old.

During the main growth stage, volcanic activity was approximately constant considering the homogeneous structure of the lava flows. Temporary periods of dormancy however occurred, causing the formation of erosion valleys on the northern slope that were then filled by younger lava flows. These younger lava flows were themselves subject to glaciation.

HoloceneThe last activity occurred during the Holocene, and included explosive activity. It was centered in the eastern collapse scar and on the summit region. In the eastern collapse scar, possibly subglacial activity formed a 30 metres (98 ft) thick sequence including clasts, lava flows and silt.

6,835 65 or 7,500 years before present, a large explosive eruption occurred. It deposited dacitic pumice more than 20 kilometres (12 mi) southeast from the volcano. Maximum thickness of the deposits is 30 metres (98 ft). It is also known as the Rio Blanco fall deposit. In the eastern collapse scar, the pumice was later buried by an andesitic lava flow, which is undated and carries the name Castillo Andesite.

The last eruption formed a lava dome within the collapse scar and the summit area. This eruption occurred about 5,700 years ago. A secondary collapse of the lava dome formed a 0.12 cubic kilometres (0.029 cu mi) large block and ash flow that descended the eastern slopes and covers a surface area of about 4 square kilometres (1.5 sq mi).

There is no reported historical volcanic activity, but fumarolic activity has been reported and remote sensing has found thermal anomalies on a scale of about 4 K (7.2 F). The volcano together with Lomas Blancas has been prospected for the potential of obtaining geothermal energy; estimated capacities are 248 megawatts.